Business Outcome
The Business Outcome or Business Linkage is used to spell out how a learning initiative supports the organization's initiatives, strategies, or goals (Garnevale, Gainer, & Villet, 1990).
Business linkage is a "high value add", which is basically defined as the difference-making in business in that it adds high value. Yet linking learning activities to other business units is one of the activities that we spend the least amount of time on. We spend an enormous amount of time on designing and implementing our learning programs that we often fail to determine how exactly it impacts the organization. Thus we spend the least amount of time on the most important activity seen by our customers. Since each customer is different, you have to ask them what their expectations are and how they would measure success (Trolley, 2006). If they do not see the Training department's learning programs as benefiting them, then they are going to start picturing your department as a consumer of the organization's resources rather than a valuable asset.
Shown below is a chart that shows the average percent of time for creating a learning program (USMC Multimedia Guideline for Percentage of Development). As shown, most training activities spend little if none in showing their clients how their efforts add value to their clients.
To ensure you capture the business outcome or linkage, begin with the end in mind -- any learning or performance initiative should be a means to an end. Thus learning initiatives should show how they will increase revenue or reduce costs. For example, training salespeople in order to reduce the percentage that fail to make sales will both increase revenue through more sales and reduce turnover costs.
Mapping the pathway of a good training and development program would look something like this (Wick, Pollock, Jefferson, Flanagan, 2006):
Successful training and development ---> More effective and efficient actions or behaviors ---> Improved business terms.
Since the flow of causality of the above pathway is from left to right, training must be planned in the opposite direction -- from right to left:
Experiences likely to produce them >--- Required changes in performance >--- Desired business outcomes.
Thus developing a viable learning program should proceed in a manner similar to this:
- Analysis Phase: Determine the business outcome -- How does it link to the business unit(s)?
- Design Phase: Determine required changes in the learner's performance.
- Development Phase: Create the experiences that will change the learner's performance.
"Impact Mapping" is a tool developed by Robert Brinkerhoff to ensure linkage between learning initiatives and business objectives. An Impact Map has three core elements: capability, performance, and results.
If we learn how to do something, we have the capability to perform in a new way. For value to occur, we have to change our behavior and use the new capability in performance. Further, our performance must be aimed at worthwhile results -- Brinkerhoff and Apking.
To reach a common understanding of the required outcomes between the training team and line leaders, use a tool similar to this:
Define:
- What business needs will be met?
- What will the learners do differently and better?
- Who will be able to see and confirm these changes?
- How will you measure and document the results?
Learning initiatives should always be undertaken to improve the performance of the business, thus they should always be defined in business terms. An ROI (Return On Investment) is not always required or cost-effective; however there should be a clear causal link.
For example, frequent feedback to subordinates is normally considered a means for promoting better performance, which should equate to higher profits. Thus "the students will learn feedback skills" is NOT a business outcome as it does not relate to a verifiable outcome. A better business outcome would be "the learner's subordinates receive more frequent and better feedback" as a result of the learning initiative. The first outcome only told us what will be learned, while this outcome gave us a result than can be measured and verified.
The Business Outcome or Business Linkage should be one of the first things to determine during the analysis phase. However, to fully understand it you might have to perform many of the other analysis steps listed below. In any case it must be spelled out by the end of the analysis phase.
Needs Assessment
St. Mark's Episcopal Cathedral, located in Seattle, Washington, has a circular,
40-foot labyrinth. Visitors walk the path for its centuries-old spiritual and
healing properties that are seeped in tradition and symbolism. The
contemplative nature of the labyrinth is said to bring inner peace by helping
one to center on the spiritual nature of things, rather than the clutter of the
world.
Labyrinths have been used as meditative tools as far back as the 13th century.
But nowadays, walking labyrinths has evolved beyond the church as hospitals,
retreat centers, prisons, and schools are offering similar labyrinth walks to
help settle the mind. They help one to get absorbed in where they are going,
while at the same time, pointing out that you do not really know where you are.
Training Needs Assessments (TNA) share several similarities with the labyrinth.
For just as a labyrinth has a path to follow, a TNA has a "gap" that must be
"bridged" (followed). This "gap" is what is between what is currently in
place and what is needed, now and in the future. While some labyrinths have one
path that must strictly be followed, others have a multitude of ways to reach
the end or exit. TNAs are like this second group, for there is normally more
that one way to bridge the gap. While following the path of a labyrinth brings
one inner-peace, building the bridge across a performance gap allows designers
to have inner-peace by knowing that they can visualize an appropriate learning and performance structure.
A Needs Assessment provides you with a complete understanding of the shortcomings of the system. While a task analysis looks strictly at the tasks performed on the job, a Needs Assessment looks not only at the tasks being performed, but also at other parts of the system that might yield clues at what might be done to improve it. Depending upon your goals, you might perform one, both, or a hybrid of the two.
There are two main methods to discover learning needs. The first method takes the proactive approach. This is when a training analyst goes into the system or process and searches for problems or potential problems. The goal is to make the system more efficient and to prevent future problems from occurring. When a new employee is needed, the required Knowledge, Skills, and Attitudes (KSA) of the candidate are known, and the KSA the candidate must be trained on are also known.
The second method is when a supervisor or manager comes to the training department for help in fixing a problem. These problems are usually caused by new hires, promotions, transfers, appraisals, rapid expansion, changes, or the introduction of new technologies. Training departments must act rapidly when problems arise that might require a training solution. The lifeblood of the business could depend on it. First, investigate the problem. A training need exists when an employee lacks the knowledge or skill to perform an assigned task satisfactorily. It arises when there is a variation between what the employee is expected to do on the job and what the actual job performance is.
To decide if training is the answer, one basic question needs to be asked, "Does the employee know how to meet the required performance standards for an accountable task?" If the answer is "No," then training is needed. If the answer is "Yes" then a different action is needed. Some of these other actions might be counseling, job redesign, process improvement, or organizational development. Often, the employee does not perform to standards due to time factors, working conditions, or a misunderstanding of the required standards. Management must recognize and consider other factors which impact performance that may not be corrected with training. Factors such as quality of procedures, human factors, management style, and the work environment also affect performance. For some more detailed help in solving performance problems see
Big Dog's Performance Coaching Page.
The performance problem chart shown below can be used to help solve training problems (Laird, 1985, p63).
Click chart to enlarge
When developing training solutions, base your decisions on the appropriate analysis techniques discussed in this chapter. The urgency of the problem might lead you to want to curtail all the training development techniques discussed in this handbook, however this should not be done as you could end up with a bigger or more expensive problem than what you started out with. Follow the model and adjust it as your gut instinct tells you to. Once you have a solution implemented, evaluate it, fine-tune it as needed, and then place it in the training system. As Seth Godwin wrote:
Here's what we used to do:
Create --> Edit --> Launch
Here's what happens now:
Create --> Launch --> Edit --> Launch --> repeat
When looking for training needs, or when problems arise, there are several instruments that may be used to locate the actual symptoms:
- Literature research: Analyze budget documents, quality control documents, goal statements, evaluation reports, scheduling and staffing reports, or other documents for existing problems.
- Interviews: Talk to supervisors, managers, Subject Matter Experts (SME), and employees.
- Observations: Watch the job or task being performed.
- Surveys: Send out written questioners.
- Group discussions: Lead a group discussion composed of employees and their supervisors.
Some questions that might be asked to determine training needs
are:
- What are your employees doing that they shouldn't be doing?
- What specific things would you like to see your people do, but don't?
- When you envision workers performing this job properly, what do you see them doing?
- What prevents you from performing a prescribed task to standards?
- Are job aids available and if so, are they accurate? Are they being used?
- Are the standards reasonable? If not, why?
- If you could change one thing in the way you perform your work, what would it be?
- What subject would you like to see your workers trained on? What would you like to be trained on?
- What new technology would benefit you the most in the performance of your work?
- What new technology would you like to see invented to help you with your work? Why?
Regardless of which method you choose and what questions you ask, the data gathered must accurately reflect the specific tasks now being performed. The information gathered will be used as the basis to select the tasks that need to be trained.
The beginning of performance is knowing what constitutes great performance. The key word is "great." If we ask for mediocre performance, then that is what we will get. . . and you cannot pounce on the competition with something mediocre and expect to win.
Analyze the System
Assessing business outcomes and needs assessments are probably the two major analysis that a designer performs. However there are a few other tools that are often used. Below are a few of them that you should be familiar with.
Note that this step be not have to be performed if the training activity is already in close contact with the client. Many training departments work with their clients or departments on a day-to-day basis, so they are already quite familiar with their clients. While other training departments are organized quite different and only come in contact with clients on an as-needed basis. Your familiarity with the clients will determine the scope of the System Overview that will need to be performed.
The purpose of this activity is to aid in the decision making process by defining all the elements, issues, facts, and features taking place in the client's system or process. The information gathered in this step provides a basic background for training developers, consultants, contractors, etc. Training programs have failed in the past and will continue to fail because the training activity did not understand the needs or wants of its clients. This step allows the training activity to understand the technical, non-technical, political, social, and cultural aspects of the client's system.
This phase allows the client to understand the training activity and its purpose. Clients often view outside activities as meddlers who interrupt their daily flow of work. These clients are often on the defensive and hide their true feelings and facts. During this initial phase you must bring the clients in on the training development activities and make them a part of the solution. It is universally advised that the clients of a proposed system be extensively involved in the construction of any new project (Bowsher, 1998, pp.64-88; Trolley, 2006; Wick, Pollock, Jefferson, Flanagan, 2006). Besides introducing the clients and the training activity to each other, other benefits include that the clients will accept and benefit from a system that they themselves helped to define. Also, nobody knows the system's requirements better than the people who own it.
The SME (Subject Matter Experts) who are sent to help with a new project are often the ones who have developed Band-Aids that keep the system running. This is not a put down, but rather a compliment. For without them the entire system would have collapsed into absolute chaos. These people often become frustrated with the pace of the analysis process, not understanding why development of the project cannot begin immediately. They often jump ahead to design and development far too soon. Ensure you capture such suggestions in the form of design notes attached to the analysis documents for later consideration. This allows team members to feel their inputs are considered important and will not be forgotten.
You should also understand the scope of the system or process. The scope of a system is the system's boundaries. For example, you are analyzing a production department. You notice that it takes many supplies to keep it operating, such as raw material to make the product, cleaning supplies, maintenance supplies, etc. Don't get led off into studying the inventory control department. They are probably two entirely different systems or processes. Stay within one process at a time until you thoroughly understand it. A process is a planned series of actions that advances a material or procedure from one stage of completion to the next. The beginning of a process starts with a trigger that causes a specific action to be taken by a person, another process, or work group. The ending occurs when the results get passed on to another person, process, or work group.
Knowing the basics of a system enables you to better understand the tasks that lay ahead. Although you are interested in the system as a whole, so that you may understand its purpose and goals, the main emphasis of this initial research should be on the people within the system. You need to learn as much about the proposed learners (target population) as possible. The target population data is essential and most useful when making decisions about the proposed learning program. You must understand the people issues! This is the biggest variable in a training program...and one of the hardest parts of a training program to account for. Statisticians can tell you every fact you want to know about the "average" person...but I dare you to find a real live average person. Listed below are some of the aspects you should be looking for:
- Anticipated number of learners
- Location of learners
- Education and experience of the learners
- Background of learners
- Experience in present or related jobs
- Job performance requirements versus present skill levels
- Language or cultural differences of learners
- Motivation of learners.
- Physical or mental characteristics of learners
- Specific interests or biases of learners.
Invite the client manager and supervisors to lunch or meet on a regular basis. Guide them into them discussing their problems and frustrations. Managers do have time for short encounters, and most of them actually like the opportunity to discuss their issues. However, they do not have the time or resources to tackle a training needs analysis project. That is the designer's job.
During the meeting, do not mention training or methods for solving performance problems. Your job is to guide, listen, and interpret. Once the lunch or meeting is over, reflect on what was said and use that information in your analysis. When it is time to brief them on your initial analysis project, show how the training department can help with some of their problems.
Depending upon the requirements of the project, Compile Task Inventory, Job List, Job Description, and Task Inventory may not have to be performed. These are normally only performed once in an organization and then updated on an as needed basis. Performing them every time a client needs training would be a waste of time and money. But, when you are tackling performance problems, the pertinent parts should be reviewed so that you know what the job and task requirements are, and then updated so that anyone who follow you will have valid material to work with.
Compile Task Inventory
If you are doing a full scale analysis, then you might be asked to compile a Job list, Job Descriptions, and Task Inventory for each job. These three assignments are not normally performed every time you research a performance problem. But they are essential to anyone involved in HRD, management, or performance as they set the standards for how a job is to be performed.
If the job and task inventories have already been compiled, then you should review and update them before moving on to the task analysis or needs analysis.
Job List
A job list is a compilation of all job titles associated with the system. Jobs are collection of tasks and responsibilities. A job is generally associated with the worker's title. Secretary, welder, and bookkeeper are jobs. A job consists of responsibilities, duties, and tasks that are defined and can be accomplished, measured, and rated. It is used as an employment tool for classifying work and for selecting employees.
Job Description
A job description is then obtained by performing a job analysis. This is the process of breaking down the complexity of a person's job into logical parts. It identifies the knowledge, skills, and attitudes required to perform the job correctly. It is often concerned with the subjective elements of a job. . . that is, expectations and attitudes.
When writing the Job Description, try to create a picture of the job that shows what will be expected of anyone fulfilling the position. Also, prepare a job description for each position. That is, you might have two sales positions, but some tasks may be different or are included in one position but not the other.
Task Inventory
A Task Inventory is compiled for each job in a department or system. A task is a function the jobholder performs, such as typing a letter, spot-welding a crack, or posting accounts into a ledger. A task is a well defined unit of work. It stands by itself. It is a logical and necessary action in the performance of a job or duty. It has an identifiable start and end point and results in a measurable accomplishment or product. It takes Skills, Knowledge, and Attitudes (SKA) to perform a task. Some jobs may only have a couple of tasks associated with them, while others will have dozens of tasks.
The following are characteristics of tasks:
- A task has a definite beginning and end.
- Tasks are performed in relatively short periods of time. They are usually measured in minutes or hours.
- Tasks are observable. By observing the performance of a jobholder, a definite determination can be made that the task has been performed.
- Each task is independent of other actions. Tasks are not dependent on components of a procedure. A task is performed by an individual for its own sake.
- A task statement is a statement of a highly specific action. It always has a verb and an object. It may have qualifiers, such as "measure distances with a tape measure". A task statement should not be confused with an objective that has conditions and standards.
"Adjust gears on a 10 speed bicycle" is a task statement. "Given a broken 10 speed bicycle and a tool kit, adjust gears. Bicycle must be operable." is an objective. "Practice good safety habits" is NOT a task statement...it cannot be measured. "Supervise personnel" is not a task statement. Use an action word to indicate what the jobholder performs, such as "Plans daily work schedule".
The task inventory consists of all the tasks that a jobholder requires to perform the job to standards. Each and every task performed by the job incumbent must be listed on the task inventory. It provides vital information about the skills, knowledge, and abilities required to perform a job. This information is valuable for developing employee selection procedures and training programs. For hiring, it informs the selection committee and applicant of what the job entails. For training purposes, it tells the developer what the job requires. It is also valuable for setting standards in performance appraisals and evaluating jobs to determine the correct pay level. Again, this document may already have been created. You should ensure that it truly represents the tasks being performed by the job holder, and that all the tasks are listed.
When writing the task, start each task with a verb, indicate how it is performed, and state the objective. For example: "Loads crates using a forklift." One way of getting a comprehensive list is to have the employees prepare their own list, starting with the most important tasks. Then, compare these lists with yours. Finally, discuss any differences with the employees, and make changes where appropriate. This helps to ensure that you have accounted for all tasks and that they are accurate. It also gets them involved in the analysis activity.
Task or needs analysis should be performed whenever there are new processes or equipment, when job performance is below standards, or when requests for changes to current training or for new training are received. An analysis helps ensure that training is the appropriate solution.
See tasks for more information
You and the clients are now ready to select the tasks to be trained. The information gathered in the systems overview, i.e., surveys, interviews, etc., will aid in your decision making process. Two processes are used in the identification of areas to be trained - Task Analysis and Needs Analysis.
When deciding which tasks to train, two guiding factors must be used -- effective and efficient. Seek the best program within acceptable costs while meeting the learning intents. Often it helps to select tasks for training by dividing them into three groups:
Performance measures are the standards for how well a task must be performed. There are four basic analysis techniques used to ensure that all performance measures associated with a task are recorded (Wiggs, 1984):
The instructional setting has minor media within it. Minor media are the learning strategies that instruct the learning points or steps. For example a JPA instructional setting might have two - a decal for starting the equipment and a manual for performing the various operations. The classroom setting could have fishbowls for teaching observation, in-baskets for teaching time management, and lectures for introducing new information. CBT could use video, self-tests, and simulations. The learning strategies (minor media) will be discussed in detail in the next chapter - Design.
If you have successfully trained similar tasks in the past, then you probably have a pretty good idea of the required delivery system. If not, then there are several options to consider when selecting the delivery system:
Although most learning objectives and concepts can be taught using almost any media, most have an ideal medium in a given learning situation. To help with the major media selection process, it often helps to run it through a flowchart:
The above Training Media Selection Flowchart is a tool to aid you in selecting the best medium for a training program. The flowchart should not be thought of as the final word in media selection, but rather a guide that shows the various options for communicating and transferring your learning objectives to others. It does not attempt to take it through every avenue of approach, as that would lead to a highly convoluted chart; but rather its goal is to lead you through the major media directions and choices.
When selecting training media, you have to consider your learner needs, resources, experience, and training goals. Also, do not take a complete training program through the chart, but rather each module of your training program. The goal of a good training effort is to build a viable and efficient program. That is, it should provide the best learning environment at the lowest possible cost. Selecting the best medium for each module and incorporating it into your course allows you to build a Best-Of-Class program.
The guidelines for selecting the instructional setting are simple - you want the learners to master the new or existing technology in a professional, effective, and efficient manner.
To help with estimating costs of any learning program, use the Excel Spreadsheet Rough Cost estimator. This will help you get a very rough estimate.
